Apparat - Magazine about the new society. Neurosexism: Are women's brains different from men's?

Gender inequality - characteristic of a social structure, according to which different social groups(V in this case- men and women) have persistent differences and resulting unequal opportunities in society. Gender inequality was recognized by researchers in the social sciences and humanities thanks to the emergence of the concept gender in 1980 as the basis of a feminist concept (Joan Scott). Conceptualization of gender has shed light on the process of social construction masculinity And femininity as oppositional categories with unequal social value.

Since the active suppression of similarities and the construction of differences requires social power, the problem of dominance is central to gender theory. Gender, together with race and class, is a hierarchical structure for both opportunity and oppression and an effective structure of identity and solidarity (Ferree). Differences in the constructs “male - female” characterize the views of researchers who construct the social in a person through the biological (see, for example, the theory of functionalism or the concept of V. A. Geodakyan). Traditional psychoanalysis recognizes that men's and female models diametrically opposed in their qualities (for a typical male behavior characterized by activity, aggressiveness, determination, desire to compete and achieve, ability to creative activity, rationality; for women - passivity, indecision, addictive behavior, conformity, absence logical thinking and aspirations for achievement, as well as greater emotionality and social balance). Keeping the basic psychoanalytic paradigms unchanged, K. Horney draws attention to the fact that the girl grows up, realizing that a man has a “great price” for society both in human and spiritual terms, and, thus, the reason for the masculinity complex in women should be sought in supra-individual, cultural factors.

Based on Tajfel-Turner's theory of social identity, K. Guinci considers men and women as social groups with different social status. High-status groups are most often assessed in terms of competence and economic success, and low-status groups - in terms of kindness, good-heartedness, humanity, etc. According to the author, all the positive traits of the female stereotype (warmth, emotional support, compliance) are typical compensation for lack of achievement in a "power position". As members of a low-status group, women, compared to men, have a less developed sense of identification with their group; they tend to overestimate men's achievements and merits and underestimate their own, adopting the point of view of a higher status group - men (Repin). Confirmation of these provisions can be seen in the data of many studies, for example, P. Goldberg discovered a certain amount of prejudice among women against themselves in the field of scientific activity; female college students rate articles signed by men more highly than by women (Ageev).

It is believed that the research of E. Maccoby and K. Jacklin, J. Mann and A. Erhard, S. Boehm made a kind of revolution in psychology and contributed to the emergence of " new psychology gender." After analyzing more than 1,600 studies of psychological sex differences, E. Maccoby and K. Jacklin came to the conclusion that, in essence, there are no fundamental innate differences in psychological characteristics men and women, the same differences that exist in young children are at least insufficient to justify traditional gender inequality social roles(Kletsina. P. 15).

Concept gender inequality is especially actively used in sociology (problems of division of labor, asymmetry of employment, etc.).

Gender inequality (English)

Literature:

Ageev V.S. Intergroup interaction. Social and psychological problems. M., 1990.
Bern S. Gender psychology. St. Petersburg, 2001.
Voronina O. A. A woman in a male society // Sociological studies. 1982. N 2. P. 43-50.
Geodakyan V. A. On the structure of evolving systems // Problems of cybernetics. Vol. 25. M., 1972.
Kletsina I. S. Gender socialization. Tutorial. St. Petersburg, 1998.
Repina T. A. Analysis of theories of gender-role socialization in modern Western psychology // Questions of psychology. 1987. N 4.
Social psychology: Reader / Compiled by: Belinskaya E. P., Tikhomandritskaya O. A. M., 1999.
Theory and history of feminism: Textbook. Kharkov, 1996.
Ferree Myra Marx. Feminism and family studies. Gender notebooks. Issue two: St. Petersburg. branch of the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. St. Petersburg, 1999. pp. 71-106.

Listen more carefully. This indignant and emotional exclamation can be heard from a good half of the windows behind which the family life. It seems that in words we call our partners “halves.” But in fact, often one of the two, in terms of rights, represents all three quarters, or even more, because of this, the so-called “inequality of men and women” arises.

Division of labor

Think about how many areas it is in no way permissible for one to do what another can! Start with small things like personal expenses and appearance. A slob husband is quite capable of seriously condemning his lifelong friend for not taking enough care of herself. And the wife, who never misses a single jewelry stall, is sincerely indignant when her husband, once or twice a month, does not deny himself, say, the purchase of a new knife for his collection.

Almost a common stumbling block is the number of responsibilities per family member. I know men who firmly believe that all household chores, without exception, are a purely woman’s business. “I have to feed my family” - this is the most common excuse. But even the “Cinderella” usually works full time!

However, such a “distortion” is also initiated by ladies who are firmly convinced that “ A real man“I am simply obliged to perform daily feats in the name of earning money, and a person with financial problems is simply unworthy of this honorary title. They themselves allow themselves minimal activity, including for the sake of this very earner.

And your personal affairs, not related to family affairs! We are jealous of our dear friends and football, but let them just try to deprive us of detailed shopping and detailed telephone inquiries into a friend’s personal life. They, in turn, frown with displeasure at their sweetheart’s Sunday outing to dance, but see nothing wrong with their own return after midnight.

And finally, the crown of unfair personal claims - the question marital fidelity. The husband allows himself “harmless trips to the left” with a saying about strengthening the marriage, but, as soon as he finds out that his wife was left alone at work with a handsome colleague... he files for divorce. And, although this is indeed the most typical case for the stronger sex, the feminine and masculine gender in this story can sometimes switch places...


About inequality

This phenomenon is called “double morality”: for one person something is considered permitted, for another it is prohibited. History has largely taken care of this. Stereotypes have been forming for a very long time. A man is born stronger, which means he will be a leader. While she is raising her descendants, he manages to hunt for game and ladies - which means that in his personal life he is allowed much more...

True, to stronger sex Traditionally, we also have our own complaints. The boy should not cry and must fight back the offender. It’s not appropriate for a young man to study homework. A man will be secondarily entrusted with raising children. In general, showing weakness and problems is under no circumstances, and being soft and economical is suspicious.

The sad thing is not that these patterns were formed. And the fact is that people continue to focus on them even in modern changed circumstances. But you just have to ask yourself: why, exactly? Why can’t a woman who is not connected by a brood of children be “polygamous” in character, and why is it not good for a man who is better at embroidering than unloading wagons to be a homebody?

Look at you

When grievances arise due to inequality, honest questions help best. Why am I obligated (obliged) to do this? Only because: it is so according to tradition; that's what your mom did; this can't happen because it can never happen? Or maybe we should cross out what is unnecessary?


but on the other hand

In a relationship, in principle, there does not have to be a mathematically precise distribution of everything “fifty-fifty.” Two people then make a harmonious couple when they know how to get along, that is, smooth out sharp corners. One of them can quite successfully play the role of a leader, if the other feels more comfortable in the role of a follower. However, to prevent the balanced “swing” from tilting in one direction over time, you need to remember:

1. Power does not mean authority so much as increased responsibility. If we remember the wild nature, then the bright coloring of gentleman birds does not so much demonstrate their superiority as it makes them more noticeable to predators while the modest and inconspicuous madam sits in the nest. The one who takes on the functions of the head of the family must remember that he is also subject to increased demands for family well-being.

2. In any division of rights and responsibilities, flexibility and moderation must be observed. Even a passive person has a boundary beyond which a stronger person is still not allowed to invade his intimate territory. It is useful to find out this “limit of permission” both for your partner and for yourself. In order not to tolerate oppression until it exceeds all critical levels.

Knowing minor flaws your half, you can easily compensate for them with your own merits. But still, it’s better for your partner to know that you would be happy, say, once every two weeks to give him the honorable right of Sunday cleaning. Otherwise, it will seem to him that “this is her business, this goes without saying,” and such opinions are the enemies of all awareness.

The problem of gender inequality in different cultures is very significant and worthy of attention. The general pattern around the world is that men have higher status and power compared to women. However, this general trend has its own specifics in different cultures (Rosaldo, Lamphere, 1974).

The level of injustice that captures gender inequality is best illustrated by a number of indicators: “women make up half of the population globe, they account for two-thirds of the total working time, they receive one tenth of total share world incomes and own one hundredth of the world's private property" (Frankenhaeuser, Lundberg, Chesney, 1991, p. 257).

What is the reason for these differences? There are many theories about this (for a review, see Gailey, 1987). However, the arguments and reasoning confirming the correctness of these theories are contradictory. The emergence of such theories was largely inspired by Marxist ideology rather than by facts. There is probably a grain of truth in every theory, but the reality is that no convincing theory has yet been created. Despite this, the explanation below seems to be the most reasonable answer to this question. We will discuss this problem in more detail in Chapter 5. Now we will only briefly outline some provisions.

Cultures vary in the degree of gender inequality. Even in those cultures where the ideal of equality is openly declared (for example, in mainland China), actual practice is far from this ideal. The tendency towards equality between men and women is stronger in communal societies than in developed stratified societies (Etienne and Leacock, 1980; Lebra, 1984). In communal societies, there is likely to be a hierarchy of interchangeability and complementarity between male and female female roles. In stratified societies there is a stronger tendency for women to “know their place.”

Socio-ecological cultural inequalities and gender inequalities are correlated with each other, and gender-based exploitation is often consistent with ecological exploitation.

For example, in those regions of Africa where the inhabitants do not profess Islam, the status of women, compared to the status of men, was much more equal until the colonial conquerors came to them (Etienne, Leacock, 1980). Under colonization, exploitation existed and levels of gender inequality increased. In addition, religious authorities often contributed to the maintenance of inequality by preaching rigid religious dogmas (Iglitzin, Ross, 1976), as well as by the very content of the religious hierarchy, which was dominated by men. Islamic and Catholic religious denominations are especially inclined to support the principle of gender inequality among their believers (ibid., 1976).

In what areas are men and women relatively equal to each other? One indicator of gender inequality is the percentage rate of illiteracy among women. In general, it is preferable for the rate to be the same for men and women, as is the case in the Scandinavian countries and Switzerland. In many developing countries, there are far more uneducated women than men. Even in the United States, women did not reach the level of education of men until the 1970s!

Another indicator of equality is the percentage of women in leadership positions. Globally, this figure is much less than 50 percent (with 48 percent in Switzerland and 28 percent in Austria). In most other countries these figures are even lower. In the United States this figure is 17%, and in Islamic countries it is also very low. IN South Korea it is 2%, in Ganna -3%.

The next indicator is the percentage of income levels of men and women. Treiman and Ross (1983) compiled an extensive statistical collection on industrialized countries. According to these data, the best ratio for these indicators is occupied by Germany (where women receive 74% of men's salaries) and Scandinavian countries(Sweden - 69%, Finland - 68%, Norway - 63%, although in Denmark - only 57%). In most Western European countries, a woman's salary is about two-thirds of a man's. The data for the United States presented in this report is 57%. Note that these are averages, and the picture for different professions differs from the average depending on the place of work, region, ethnic group, age group etc. However, in general, women's wages are lower than men's. On the other hand, worldwide the mortality rate for men is higher than for women. In Northern Ireland the ratio is 9 to 1. In the US it is 3.3 to 1, although in Denmark it is 1.1 to 1. Men are also more likely to die in car accidents. In Chile the ratio is 4.8 to 1, in the United States it is 2.7 to 1. Iceland is an exception in this regard, where the ratio is 1 to 1. Again, these figures reflect averages, and the trend continues for men to engage in more dangerous activities. activities than women.

a characteristic of a social structure, according to which different social groups (in this case, men and women) have persistent differences and resulting unequal opportunities in society. Gender inequality was recognized by researchers in the social sciences and humanities with the emergence of the concept of gender in 1980 as the basis of a feminist concept (Joan Scott). The conceptualization of gender has shed light on the process of social construction of masculinity and femininity as oppositional categories with unequal social value.

Since the active suppression of similarities and the construction of differences requires social power, the problem of dominance is central to gender theory. Gender, together with race and class, is a hierarchical structure for both opportunity and oppression and an effective structure of identity and solidarity (Ferree). Differences in the constructs “male - female” characterize the views of researchers who construct the social in a person through the biological (see, for example, the theory of functionalism or the concept of V. A. Geodakyan). Traditional psychoanalysis recognizes that male and female models are diametrically opposed in their qualities (typical male behavior is characterized by activity, aggressiveness, determination, desire for competition and achievement, ability for creative activity, rationality; for female behavior - passivity, indecisiveness, dependent behavior, conformity , lack of logical thinking and striving for achievement, as well as greater emotionality and social balance). Keeping the basic psychoanalytic paradigms unchanged, K. Horney draws attention to the fact that the girl grows up, realizing that a man has a “great price” for society both in human and spiritual terms, and, thus, the reason for the masculinity complex in women should be sought in supra-individual, cultural factors.

Based on Tajfel-Turner's theory of social identity, K. Guinci views men and women as social groups with different social status. High-status groups are most often assessed in terms of competence and economic success, and low-status groups - in terms of kindness, good-heartedness, humanity, etc. According to the author, all the positive traits of the female stereotype (warmth, emotional support, compliance) are typical compensation for lack of achievement in a "power position". As members of a low-status group, women, compared to men, have a less developed sense of identification with their group; they tend to overestimate men's achievements and merits and underestimate their own, adopting the point of view of a higher status group - men (Repin). Confirmation of these provisions can be seen in the data of many studies, for example, P. Goldberg discovered a certain amount of prejudice among women against themselves in the field of scientific activity; female college students rate articles signed by men more highly than by women (Ageev).